ESSENTIAL LANGUAGE SKILLS
Essential Language Skills
Definite and Indefinite Articles: Because articles in English are troublesome for many learners, it is useful to review the use of these articles:
The Indefinite Article: The most common use of the indefinite article a (an before a vowel sound) is to signal an unspecified item. Note the example: “She wants a car.” Note that the noun, car, is indefinite; it is not specific.
The Definite Article: The definite article the signals a specific or particular person, place, or thing. Nouns can be made specific in several ways.
The noun has been identified in a previous sentence. When the noun is first mentioned, it is unspecified, so the article a may be used. For example: “We bought a new car last year. After we got the car home, one of its tires went flat.”
The noun has a modifying phrase or clause in the sentence that identifies it as a specific item. For example: “The information that I got from this book was helpful.”
The situation identifies the noun. When both the writer and the reader are familiar with the item that is being referred to, the is used.
Exercise on The Use of Articles: Directions: Write a, an, or the in the blanks. If no article is needed, write 0.
- ______ life brings many strange events.
- ______ food is necessary for survival.
- ______ food we had at the restaurant was excellent.
- ______ fascinating place to visit is Samoa.
- ______ people who do not eat meat are generally healthy.
- ______ extended example is often called ______ illustration.
The following quantifiers indicate a number or amount:
| W/ Plural Count | W/ Non-Count | W/ Singular Count |
| few (students) | little (money) | one (student) |
| a few | a little | each |
| several | some | every |
| some | much | neither/either |
| many | any | no |
| most | no | |
| all | ||
| no | ||
| both | ||
| two, three etc.. |
Please note that there is a difference between few and a few and between little and a little. Few and little have a negative meaning. A few and a little have a positive meaning.
Participles as Adjectives: Adjectives such as beautiful, tall, and soft are necessary in effective writing because they give specific, vivid detail. Two other kind of adjectives that are useful but troublesome are the present participle (-ing) and the past participle (-en) forms. Although they are actually verb forms, they can be used as adjectives.
Consider The Following: When I am depressed, my favorite place to go is the beach. The film ‘Chocolat’ is interesting and touching. It is difficult sometimes to tell whether you should use the present or the past participle, choose. However, you will soon discover that you use the present participle (-ing) to describe the doer (the cause) and you use the past participle (-en) to describe the receiver (the result).
Watch this: The movie caused me to be depressed. It is a depressing movie.
Got it!
Here are some troubling verbs
| delight | surprise | bother | digust | thrill | interest | worry | shock |
| charm | fascinate | disappoint | scare | amuse | satisfy | depress | frighten |
| excite | relieve | annoy | horrify | elate | reassure | bore | appall |
| impress | overwhelm | confuse | insult | please | flatter | mislead | offend |
The Subjunctive: Some types of essays, such as the argumentation essay, frequently conclude with a suggestion or recommendation for future action. A good sentence construction to use for this form of writing is a noun clause beginning with ‘THAT’. The noun clause patterns that recommends and suggests requires special attention. After certain verbs and adjectives that express the idea of requesting or advising, the simple verb form, or the infinitive, is used.
Consider The Following: The doctor recommended that I see him immediately. Meaning: The doctor recommends that I should see him immediately.
The teacher advised that all students take the test.
Meaning: The teacher advised that all students should take the test.
It is suggested that the president be responsible for his actions.
Meaning: It is suggested that the president should be responsible for his actions.
The following is a list of verbs used in the subjunctive.
| advise | desire | urge |
| ask | forbid | demand |
| recommend | beg | request |
| insist | stipulate | command |
| require | move | suggest |
Sentence Variety: For short, choppy sentences
- Coordination:
and, but, or, nor, yet, for, so
Join complete sentences, clauses, and phrases with coordinators:
example: Doonesbury cartoons satirize contemporary politics. The victims of political corruption pay no attention. They prefer to demand that newspapers not carry the strip.
revision: Doonesbury cartoons laugh at contemporary politicians, but the victims of political corruption pay no attention and prefer to demand that newspapers not carry the strip. - Subordination:
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, rather than, since, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whereas, wherever, whether, which, while
Link two related sentences to each other so that one carries the main idea and the other is no longer a complete sentence (subordination). Use connectors such as the ones listed above to show the relationship.
example: The campus parking problem is getting worse. The university is not building any new garages.
revision: The campus parking problem is getting worse because the university is not building any new garages.
example: The US has been overly dependent on foreign oil for many years. Alternate sources of energy are only now being sought.
revision: Although the US has been overly dependent on foreign oil for many years, alternate sources are only now being sought.
Notice in these examples that the location of the clause beginning with the dependent marker (the connector word) is flexible. This flexibility can be useful in creating varied rhythmic patterns over the course of a paragraph. See the section below under “For the same pattern or rhythm in a series of sentences.”
For the same subject or topic repeated in consecutive sentences
- Relative pronouns
which, who, whoever, whom, that, whose
Embed one sentence inside the other using a clause starting with one of the relative pronouns listed above.
example: Indiana used to be mainly an agricultural state. It has recently attracted more industry.
revision: Indiana, which used to be mainly an agricultural state, has recently attracted more industry.
example: One of the cameras was not packed very well. It was damaged during the move.
revision: The camera that was not packed very well was damaged during the move.
example: The experiment failed because of Murphy’s Law. This law states that if something can go wrong, it will.
revision: The experiment failed because of Murphy’s Law, which states that if something can go wrong, it will.
example: Doctor Ramirez specializes in sports medicine. She helped my cousin recover from a basketball injury.
revision 1: Doctor Ramirez, who specializes in sports medicine, helped my cousin recover from a basketball injury.
revision 2: Doctor Ramirez, whose specialty is sports medicine, helped my cousin recover from a basketball injury. - Participles:
Present participles end in -ing, for example: speaking, carrying, wearing, dreaming.
Past participles usually end in -ed, -en, -d, -n, or -t but can be irregular, for example: worried, eaten, saved, seen, dealt, taught.
For more on participles, see our handout on verbals. Eliminate a be verb (am, is, was, were, are) and substitute a participle.
example: Wei Xie was surprised to get a phone call from his sister. He was happy to hear her voice again.
revision 1: Wei Xie, surprised to get a phone call from his sister, was happy to hear her voice again.
revision 2: Surprised to get a phone call from her, Wei Xie was happy to hear his sister’s voice again. - Prepositions:
about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, as, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, by, despite, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, near, next to, of, off, on, out, over, past, to, under, until, up, with
Turn a clause into a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with a preposition, such as the ones listed above).
example 1: The university has been facing pressure to cut its budget. It has eliminated funding for important programs. (two independent clauses)
example 2: The university, which has been facing pressure to cut its budget, has eliminated funding for important programs. (subject, relative clause, predicate)
example 3: Because it has been facing pressure to cut its budget, the university has eliminated funding for important programs. (dependent clause, independent clause)
revised: Under pressure to cut its budget, the university has eliminated funding for important programs. (prepositional phrase, independent clause: the most concise version of the four)
For the same pattern or rhythm in a series of sentences
- Dependent Markers
See the list of dependent markers above under “Subordination.”
Put clauses and phrases with dependent markers at the beginning of some sentences instead of starting each sentence with the subject. In this example the structure and content of the sentences remains the same, but some elements are moved around to vary the rhythm.
example: The room fell silent when the TV newscaster reported the story of the earthquake. We all stopped what we were doing. The pictures of the quake shocked us. We could see that large sections of the city had been completely destroyed.
revised: When the TV newscaster reported the story of the earthquake, the room fell silent. We all stopped what we were doing. The pictures of the quake shocked us because we could see that large sections of the city had been completely destroyed. - Transitional Words and Phrases
accordingly, after all, afterward, also, although, and, but, consequently, despite, earlier, even though, for example, for instance, however, in conclusion, in contrast, in fact, in the meantime, in the same way, indeed, just as… so, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, not only… but also, now, on the contrary, on the other hand, on the whole, otherwise, regardless, shortly, similarly, specifically, still, that is, then, therefore, though, thus, yet
Vary the rhythm by adding transitional words at the beginning of some sentences.
example: Fast food corporations are producing and advertising bigger items and high-fat combination meals. The American population faces a growing epidemic of obesity.
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revised: Fast food corporations are producing and advertising bigger items and high-fat combination meals. Meanwhile, the American population faces a growing epidemic of obesity.
Vary the rhythm by alternating short and long sentences.
example: They visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native American art. In Anchorage stores they found some excellent examples of soapstone carvings. But they couldn’t find a dealer selling any of the woven wall hangings they wanted.
revised: They visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native American art, such as soapstone carvings and wall hangings. Anchorage stores had many soapstone items available. Still, they were disappointed to learn that wall hangings, which they had especially wanted, were difficult to find.
| Parallel Structure Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as *and* or *or*. 1. Words and Phrases With the -ing form of words: Parallel: Mary likes hiking , swimming , and bicycling . With infinitive phrases: (Note: You can use *to* before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.) Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim , and to ride a bicycle. OR Mary likes to hike, swim , and ride a bicycle. Do not mix forms. Example 1 Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking , swimming , and to ride a bicycle. Parallel: Mary likes hiking , swimming , and riding a bicycle. Example 2 Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly , accurately , and in a detailed manner. Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly and accurately. Example 3 Not Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low. Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation. 2. Clauses A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism. Example 1 Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game. Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game. — or — Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game. Example 2 Not Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive) Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions. 3. Lists after a colon Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form. Example 1 Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings , and looking up irregular verbs. Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs. Proofreading Strategies to try: Skim your paper, pausing at the words “and” and “or.” Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel. If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel. Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of “-ing” words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel. |
| Mind Your Language Commonly Confused Words Many of your spelling errors may be caused by a confusion of words that have different spellings but similar pronunciations. Since the confused words sound alike, their pronunciation is no clue to their spelling. Instead you must rely on their meanings if you are to spell them correctly. Below is a list of some of these troublesome Sound-Alikes. They are words that you use frequently in writing, so be sure to learn them correctly. capital (leading city; money) Albany is the capital of New York. John has invested all her capital. Capitol (only the name of a building) Congress meet at the Capitol in Washington. hear (listen) I could not hear my cellular phone because of the interference. here (in this place) I shall wait for you here. its (belongs to it) The dog could not wag its tail. passed ( went by I passed the library on the way to class. past ( a former time) Those who forget their past can be lost. peace (the absence of war and strife) The United Nations hopes to bring peace to the world. piece ( a portion)Have a piece of pie with your tea. principal (most important; chief person; the original amount of a loan) What is the principal idea of this essay? Ms. Dean is the school principal. I have paid the interest of fifty dollars on the principal. principle (a basic doctrine or rule) The many principles of physics are difficult to learn. then ( at that time) We went to an early dinner, and then we went home. than (used to compare unequal things) His essay was longer than mine. their ( belonging to them) It is their privilege to vote against the amendment. there ( at that place) There is the oldest schoolhouse in America. They’re they are) They’re the best friends one could hope for. to (toward; part of the infinitive) John gave his schedule to me. They like to condemn all his decisions. too (also; more than enough) I like coffee too. Children watch too much TV. Two (the number 2) We consulted two doctors. weather (the state of the atmosphere) The weather was fine for a trip to the lake. whether (indicates a choice) Pham could not decide whether to stay home or to go out. Who’s ( who is) Who’s your teacher? whose ( belonging to whom) Whose books are these? Your (belonging to you) It is your decision to make. You’re ( you are) You’re my best friend. A SPECIAL NOTE: Memory tricks are especially helpful for learning these Sound-Alikes. Remember that you hear with your ear. We waited here and not there. The principal is my pal and the chief person in the school. The principle is a rule. The capitol has a dome. The weather was clear. He ate a piece of pie. |
| Mind Your Language Dangling Modifiers Definition: A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. Consider this sentence: Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV. “Having finished” states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing the action (“having finished”), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling modifier. Now consider this sentence: Having finished the assignment, the TV set was turned on. Having finished is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV sets don’t finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier. Examples of dangling modifiers and revisions: dangling modifier: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing. (The article–the subject of the main clause–did not read the original study.) possible revisions: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing. -or- The article remains unconvincing in light of the original study. dangling modifier: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax. (Your home–the subject of the main clause–is not relieved of your responsibilities.) possible revision: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home. Characteristics of dangling modifiers: They most frequently occur at the beginning of sentences but can also appear at the end. dangling modifier at end of sentence: The experiment was a failure, having not studied the lab manual carefully. (The experiment–the subject of the main clause–did not study the lab manual.) possible revision: The experiment was a failure because they had not studied the lab manual carefully. They often have an -ing word or a to+verb phrase near the start of the sentence. Squinting modifiers: Related to dangling modifiers, squinting modifiers occur when the word modified is not clear or could be more than one word. These problems can usually be solved by rearranging the elements already present in the sentence. squinting modifier: The mystery has been solved after ten years of the missing portrait. possible revisions: After ten years, the mystery of the missing portrait has been solved. The mystery of the missing portrait has been solved after ten years. Strategies for revising dangling modifiers: 1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause: dangling modifier: Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed. possible revision: Having arrived late for practice, the captain of the team needed a written excuse. 2. Name the doer of the action in the phrase that dangles: dangling modifier: Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him. possible revision: Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him. 3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one: dangling modifier: To improve his results, the experiment was done again. possible revision: He improved his results by doing the experiment again. |