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BLOOMS TAXONOMY
Benjamin Bloom’s 6 Major Categories in the Cognitive Domain
Bloom’s taxonomy helps instructors develop goals and objectives that demand higher levels of cognition where students have to construct their own knowledge in a nurtured environment.
Educator Benjamin Bloom developed a listing of words that represent the different levels of thinking. He listed them in an index known as Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain. Bloom sees the first level, knowledge, the recognition and recall of facts and specifics, as the lowest level of thinking while levels 4. Analysis, 5. Synthesis, and 6. Evaluation reflect the highest levels of cognition (thinking).
This list is a helpful tool in developing goals and objectives. Try to create goals and objectives that require the highest levels of cognition when writing goals.
Benjamin Bloom's 6 Major Categories in the Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge
Recognizes and recalls facts and specifics.
Word's that reflect knowledge:
| define | record | name |
| memorize | list | relate |
| repeat | recall | state |
2. Comprehension
Interprets, translates, summarize or paraphrases information.
Words that reflect comprehension:
| restate | tell | locate |
| discuss | review | identify |
| describe | report | express |
| recognize | explain |
3. Application
Uses information in a situation different from original learning context.
Words that reflect application of knowledge:
| translate | employ | dramatize | |
| interpret | use | practice | |
| apply | demonstrate | illustrate | |
| operate | schedule | sketch |
4. Analysis
Separates whole into parts until relationship among elements is clear.
Words that reflect analysis:
| classify | differentiate | experiment | |
| distinguish | appraise | test | |
| analyze | calculate | compare | |
| contrast | criticize | diagram | |
| question | relate | examine | |
| translate | interpret | inventory | |
| inspect | debate |
5. Synthesis
Combines elements to form new entity from original ones.
Words that reflect synthesis:
| synthesize | compose | plan | |
| propose | design | formulate | |
| design | construct | create | |
| set up | organize | manage | |
| prepare | integrate | predict | |
| summarize | assemble | collect | |
| arrange |
6. Evaluation
Involves acts of decision making, judging or selecting based on criteria and rational.
Words that reflect evaluation:
| judge | appraise | evaluate |
| rate | compare | score |
| revise | value | select |
| measure | estimate | assess |
| choose |
ANALYSIS
Audience Analysis
Accurate audience analysis is crucial for the success of any educational program (Conard, 2000, p.60). Audience analysis has three phases: needs analysis, task analysis, and instructional analysis. While needs analysis begins with identifying and defining a problem, task analysis seeks more information on the target audience to ensure that needs will be met. Instructional analysis uses the information provided by needs and task analysis and helps in designing a focused program for a specific audience (Conard, 2000).
Needs Analysis:
Needs analysis focuses on identifying and defining an issue or a problem. Several dimensions are considered in this stage of audience analysis: demographics, knowledge, environment, performance criteria, and delivery system (Conard, 2000, p.63). Also, considerations related to Web use, such as distance, experience, attitudes, access, tools, and availability, are considered in the needs analysis.
Task Analysis:
Task analysis seeks more specific information (Conard, 2000, pp. 65-66). Based on the information collected, a task analysis helped determine how different these online classes would be from traditional ones and what tools to use to meet course objectives. Three standard methods of this stage are observation of task performance, interviews, and examination of previous materials. This would assist in deciding on the design and delivery of the course content.
Instructional Analysis:
Instructional analysis helps focus training for specific audiences because it reveals the skills and knowledge the learners have at the beginning and end of the course and the baseline of the course objectives (Conard, 2000, p.70). This is particularly useful in revising and reconstructing courses, their content, and the tools used.
Real Life – Real Experience
To develop and design online classes for English as a Second Language students at San Jose City College, a needs analysis was informally carried out through discussions and interviews with the students and personnel in our language labs. Information about the target population’s demographics, skills and competencies, preferences, perceptions and expectations helped decide the feasibility of offering online advanced writing classes. Questions related to Internet use and perception of its advantages and disadvantages provided information on our students’ interests.
My task as the proposal writer, course developer, designer, and instructor was to start writing classes online. The most significant issue here was to design the curriculum to fit this method of delivery—how to make the curriculum relevant to Internet use.
Instructional analysis is an ongoing process. Learning about students’ skills and performance helps shape and reshape the courses I teach regarding content design, site design, tools used, and assessment methods.
References:
Conrad, K. & TrainingLinks (2000). Instructional design for Web-based training. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.
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Evaluating Web-Based Training
Evaluation of web-based programs is important for two reasons: first, it helps in the decision-making process to improve the program; second, it establishes accountability (Khan, 2001, p. 515). Formative evaluation leads to planning for continuous improvement of learning (Khan, 2001, p. 517).
For a web-based program to be valuable, it must be justifiable, with appropriate instructional principles, and evaluated regularly. This formative evaluation helps improve the program's effectiveness (Khan, 2001, p. 509). In addition, different learning styles and possible barriers must be addressed for a program to succeed (Khan, 2001, p. 509).
In his study, Zane Berge (Khan, 2001, p. 515) explains three levels of evaluation: first, evaluating whether the stakeholder outcomes are being met; second, evaluating content and how well participants learn; and third, he adds, political and technological infrastructure since it “may have a great impact upon the interpretation and evaluation given” (Khan, 2001, p. 520).
In his analysis, Harvi Singh (Khan, 2001) observes Kirkpatrik’s four levels of evaluation: reaction to the program, learning and acquisition of knowledge, behavioral outcome, and whether the training achieved the desired result (Khan, 2001, p. 524).
Usability testing is used to evaluate and improve how learners use the online interface and online course materials. According to Michael Hughes and Loren Burke (Khan, 2001), this is the observation of users performing tasks to determine what changes, if any, need to be made. To enhance the validity and reliability of the tests, a team of stakeholders needs to design them (Khan, 2001, p. 524).
To bring this to a more specific situation, as in my case, developing and implementing online programs, the most critical test is to decide whether a course is justifiable. This is an ongoing process; the learner’s characteristics and interests are always in consideration. Whether the content, tools, and delivery help meet the learner’s expectations is also ongoing. Unfortunately, most other evaluation processes mentioned above have not been implemented in my college. It is too costly and time-consuming.
References,
Khan, B.H. (Ed.). (2001). Web-Based Training. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Educational Technology Publications.
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Intellectual Property, Free Speech, and Distance Education
“With a few keystrokes, deft maneuvering of a mouse or skilled use of computerized drawing tools, a copyrighted work can be reproduced or derivative works made and displayed to literally millions of people connected by computer networks around the globe." Dorothy Bowles, media law professor (1998). What a dilemma! One’s creation should have copyright protections; one’s free expression should continue to have constitutional protection, and one’s privacy should be guarded. This is not an easy matter since these interests are bound to collide in the new world of the Internet.
Those of us involved with distance education may be concerned about the appropriate level of free speech and what constitutes a copyright infringement. In his analysis, Spinello (2000) raises several questions that we, online teachers and learners, may find relevant. For example, we use many links on our websites to direct our students to other sources of information; does this constitute an infringement, or is it our right to do so? About copyright rules, will I be infringing on an author’s rights if I copy part of his/her work and post it on my course site for my students to read? What if I credit the author by acknowledging his/her name?
The first question may be difficult to answer. Some argue that since the sites are available publicly, linking is no problem; however, it is advised to avoid linking to sites that explicitly indicate not to.
Incorporating someone else’s work into a course curriculum is copyright infringement unless permission is granted. Education World explains that “…nearly every original, tangible expression is copyrighted immediately upon creation. An author does not have to register, announce that the work is copyright protected, or display the copyright symbol to enjoy copyright protection. All he or she must do is create an original work in tangible form.”
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr280a.shtml
All this presents a challenge to the advancement of distance education. As for teacher and student free speech, it is not difficult to handle; many schools have guidelines that teachers and students must abide by. However, intellectual property issues are still something to struggle with. Schools that offer distance education, if they want to avoid possible lawsuits, must provide extensive training to teachers, students, and administrators. Some schools may find that too costly and decide to eliminate distance learning.
Lipschultz, Jeremy, Free Expression in the Age of the Internet: Social and Legal Boundaries; Publisher: Westview Press, 2000.
Fisch, L. (Ed.) (1996). Ethical Dimensions of College and University Teaching: Understanding and Honoring the Special Relationship Between Teachers and Students. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Spinello, R. (2000). Cyberethics: Morality and Law in Cyberspace. Sudbuty, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers International.
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Intellectual Property, Free Speech, and Distance Education
"With a few keystrokes, deft maneuvering of a mouse or skilled use of computerized drawing tools, a copyrighted work can be reproduced or derivative works made and displayed to literally millions of people connected by computer networks around the globe." Dorothy Bowles, media law professor (1998). What a dilemma! One’s creation should have copyright protections; one’s free expression should continue to have constitutional protection, and one’s privacy should be guarded. This is not an easy matter since these interests are bound to collide in the new world of the Internet.
Those of us involved with distance education may be concerned about the appropriate level of free speech and what constitutes a copyright infringement. In his analysis, Spinello (2000) raises several questions that we, online teachers and learners, may find relevant. For example, we use many links on our websites to direct our students to other sources of information; does this constitute an infringement, or is it our right to do so? About copyright rules, will I be infringing on an author’s rights if I copy part of his/her work and post it on my course site for my students to read? What if I credit the author by acknowledging his/her name?
The first question may be difficult to answer. Some argue that since the sites are available publicly, linking is no problem; however, it is advised to avoid linking to sites that explicitly indicate not to.
Incorporating someone else’s work into a course curriculum is copyright infringement unless permission is granted. Education World explains that “…nearly every original, tangible expression is copyrighted immediately upon creation. An author does not have to register, announce that the work is copyright protected, or display the copyright symbol to enjoy copyright protection. All he or she must do is create an original work in tangible form.”
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr280a.shtml
All this presents a challenge to the advancement of distance education. As for teacher and student free speech, it is not difficult to handle; many schools have guidelines that teachers and students must abide by. However, intellectual property issues are still something to struggle with. Schools that offer distance education, if they want to avoid possible lawsuits, must provide extensive training to teachers, students, and administrators. Some schools may find that too costly and decide to eliminate distance learning.
Lipschultz, Jeremy, Free Expression in the Age of the Internet: Social and Legal Boundaries; Publisher: Westview Press, 2000.
Fisch, L. (Ed.) (1996). Ethical Dimensions of College and University Teaching: Understanding and Honoring the Special Relationship Between Teachers and Students. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Spinello, R. (2000). Cyberethics: Morality and Law in Cyberspace. Sudbuty, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers International.
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ETHICAL DELIVERY SYSTEM - COMPATABILITY MODE
There are three central delivery systems for distance education: Television, Telephone, and the Internet. While each system has its characteristics, requirements advantages, and disadvantages, they all share standard requirements for success. For a distance learning program to succeed, importance must be given to the following:
Understanding the system:
An instructor offering a distance learning program should be familiar and comfortable with the system s/he uses.
Understanding the roles:
It must be clear to the instructor what his/her role is and the student’s role. A distance learning instructor must be a skillful facilitator.
Understanding the learner’s environment:
An instructor offering a distance learning program should consider time zones, easy access, and availability of support.
Planning and organization:
Whether the distance program uses television, telephone, or the Internet, planning is crucial. The instructor needs to have suitable materials, and his/her materials must be clear to be delivered through the medium of choice. The instructor should also be prepared to encourage interaction and provide and ask for feedback.
Some Ethical Issues:
Self-Improvement:
Whether the system of choice is television, telephone, or the Internet, a teacher must be competent and maintain subject matter competency. Instructional methods and pedagogy may vary depending on the medium used. For example, while video is used extensively on television, excessive use of video on the Internet may overwhelm the learners. Also, feedback and assessment may vary.
Nonmaleficence:
Regardless of the delivery system used, a teacher ought to respect confidentiality, be watchful for conflicts of interest, and be tactful when dealing with sensitive topics.
Autonomy:
Whether the delivery system is television, telephone, or the Internet, a teacher should facilitate learning that encourages independent thinking. In addition to the use of television, a teacher should encourage students to express their opinions and seek feedback.
Reparation:
In using television for delivery, the instructor loses autonomy; “In the studio environment, the instructor is but one member of a large team.” (Cyrs, p. 55). Here, the instructor may find him/herself in need of adjusting. The same may be accurate using the telephone as a delivery method. In an Internet environment, the instructor may have larger autonomy. Regardless, the instructor will have to exercise respect for colleagues and students.
Cyrs, Thomas E. (1997) Taching and Learning at a Distance: What It Takes to Design, Delliver, and Evaluate Programs Effectively. Jossey-Bass Inc, San Francisco, CA.
Fisch, L. (Ed.) (1996). Ethical Dimensions of College and University Teaching: Understanding and Honoring the Special Relationship between Teachers and Students. . Jossey-Bass Inc San Francisco, CA
Spinello, R. (2000). Cyberethics: Morality and Law in Cyberspace. Sudbuty, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers International.